DAILY NEWS ANALYSIS

The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) has recently recommended 13 defence and paramilitary projects, most of which are located in the high-altitude protected areas of Ladakh, with one project proposed in Arunachal Pradesh. These recommendations reflect the ongoing need to balance national security requirements with wildlife conservation concerns in ecologically sensitive zones.

About the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

The National Board for Wildlife is a statutory body established by the Central Government in 2022 under Section 5A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
It serves as India’s apex advisory body on matters related to wildlife conservation and environmental protection within Protected Areas (PAs).

The NBWL plays a crucial role in guiding the government on issues related to wildlife conservation and also grants approvals for activities and projects proposed within PAs.

Organisational Structure of the NBWL

The NBWL is a 47-member body with the Prime Minister as its Chairperson and the Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) serving as its Vice-Chairperson.

The Board includes:

• Key officials and institutions directly involved in wildlife conservation.

• The Chief of Army Staff, the Defence Secretary, and the Expenditure Secretary as members.

• Ten eminent conservationists, ecologists, and environmentalists, nominated by the Central Government.

The Additional Director General of Forests (Wildlife) & Director, Wildlife Preservation functions as the Member-Secretary of the Board.

Functions of the National Board for Wildlife

The NBWL performs several important functions, including:

1. Wildlife Conservation and Development

It promotes the conservation and development of wildlife and forest ecosystems across the country.

2. Advisory Role

It advises both the Central and State Governments on policies, measures, and actions necessary for wildlife protection and management.

3. Regulation of Protected Areas

The Board makes recommendations regarding the creation, management, and expansion of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and other Protected Areas.

4. Combatting Wildlife Crime

It works toward controlling poaching, illegal wildlife trade, and the exploitation of wildlife products.

5. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The NBWL evaluates the potential impacts of proposed projects and activities on wildlife and their habitats before granting clearances.

6. Monitoring Conservation Progress

It periodically reviews nationwide wildlife conservation efforts and suggests improvements.

7. Status Reports

The NBWL is required to prepare and publish a status report on wildlife in India at least once every two years.

Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife

The Standing Committee is an independent sub-body under the NBWL.
It consists of not more than 10 members from the full NBWL, and is headed by the Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Functions of the Standing Committee

• The Standing Committee primarily deals with project-level clearances, including decisions related to land diversion within Protected Areas and Eco-Sensitive Zones.

• Its mandate is operational and project-specific, making it distinct from the NBWL, which handles broader policy-level decisions regarding wildlife conservation.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently prohibited tourists from entering the ‘Nata Mandap’ of the Konark Sun Temple in Puri district, Odisha. This decision has been taken to preserve the structural integrity of the historic monument.

About Konark Sun Temple

The Konark Sun Temple, also called the Surya Devalaya, is situated on the coastline of Odisha in Puri district. It is dedicated to the Hindu sun god, Surya.

Historical evidence indicates that Narasimha I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, who reigned between 1238 and 1264 CE, constructed the temple around 1250 CE. In 1984, it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its architectural and cultural significance.

Architectural Features

Style and Structure

The Konark Sun Temple is a classic example of Odisha (Kalinga) style architecture. Its height is approximately 227 feet, making it one of the tallest temples ever built in India. The temple complex is designed to resemble a giant solar chariot with 24 stone-carved wheels pulled by six stone horses.

Orientation and Sundials

The temple is oriented towards the east, allowing the first rays of the sunrise to illuminate the main entrance. The wheels of the chariot serve as functional sundials, capable of measuring time accurately to a minute.

Carvings and Sculptures

The base and walls of the temple feature elaborate stone carvings depicting:

• Animals

• Foliage

• Warriors on horseback

• Scenes from Hindu mythology

Materials and Construction

The temple was constructed using three types of stones:

• Laterite stone: boundary walls, flooring, and staircases

• Khondalite stone: main structure

• Chlorite stone: door jambs and lintels

Iron strips were used to hold parts of the structure together, some of which are still visible in the ruins.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• Europeans referred to the temple as the Black Pagoda because of its dark facade, and it was used for navigation by ships along the coast.

• Local legends suggest that the temple possessed magnetic powers capable of attracting ships to the shore.

• The temple continues to be a site of worship, particularly during the annual Chandrabhaga Festival held around February.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently prohibited tourists from entering the ‘Nata Mandap’ of the Konark Sun Temple in Puri district, Odisha. This decision has been taken to preserve the structural integrity of the historic monument.

About Konark Sun Temple

The Konark Sun Temple, also called the Surya Devalaya, is situated on the coastline of Odisha in Puri district. It is dedicated to the Hindu sun god, Surya.

Historical evidence indicates that Narasimha I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, who reigned between 1238 and 1264 CE, constructed the temple around 1250 CE. In 1984, it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its architectural and cultural significance.

Architectural Features

Style and Structure

The Konark Sun Temple is a classic example of Odisha (Kalinga) style architecture. Its height is approximately 227 feet, making it one of the tallest temples ever built in India. The temple complex is designed to resemble a giant solar chariot with 24 stone-carved wheels pulled by six stone horses.

Orientation and Sundials

The temple is oriented towards the east, allowing the first rays of the sunrise to illuminate the main entrance. The wheels of the chariot serve as functional sundials, capable of measuring time accurately to a minute.

Carvings and Sculptures

The base and walls of the temple feature elaborate stone carvings depicting:

• Animals

• Foliage

• Warriors on horseback

• Scenes from Hindu mythology

Materials and Construction

The temple was constructed using three types of stones:

• Laterite stone: boundary walls, flooring, and staircases

• Khondalite stone: main structure

• Chlorite stone: door jambs and lintels

Iron strips were used to hold parts of the structure together, some of which are still visible in the ruins.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• Europeans referred to the temple as the Black Pagoda because of its dark facade, and it was used for navigation by ships along the coast.

• Local legends suggest that the temple possessed magnetic powers capable of attracting ships to the shore.

• The temple continues to be a site of worship, particularly during the annual Chandrabhaga Festival held around February.

The Indian Naval Ship (INS) Sahyadri is currently at Guam in the Northern Pacific to participate in the multilateral Exercise Malabar-2025.

About Exercise Malabar

Exercise Malabar is a naval exercise that was initiated in 1992 as a bilateral exercise between the Indian Navy and the United States Navy.

• The first Malabar Exercise in the Bay of Bengal took place in 2007.

• In 2015, the exercise was expanded to a trilateral format with the inclusion of the Japanese Navy.

• In 2020, the Australian Navy joined, making it a quadrilateral naval exercise.

The exercise is conducted annually, alternating between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Over the years, it has evolved into a key multilateral event aimed at:

• Enhancing interoperability among participating navies

• Fostering mutual understanding

• Addressing shared maritime challenges in the Indian Ocean and Indo-Pacific region

Structure of Exercise Malabar-2025

Exercise Malabar-2025 is divided into two main phases:

1. Harbour Phase

During the harbour phase, participating navies focus on:

• Operational planning and discussions

• Alignment of communication protocols

• Familiarisation visits among personnel of different navies

• Sports fixtures to build camaraderie

2. Sea Phase

In the sea phase, all participating ships and aircraft conduct naval drills, which include:

• Joint fleet operations

• Anti-submarine warfare

• Gunnery exercises

• Flying operations

Significance

Exercise Malabar enhances strategic cooperation, strengthens regional maritime security, and promotes coordination in addressing shared threats in the Indo-Pacific region.

The President of the United States has ordered the resumption of nuclear weapon testing after a gap of 33 years, the last test being in 1992. This decision marks a significant shift in global nuclear policy and has far-reaching implications for geopolitics, the environment, and international security.

Status of Global Nuclear Weapon Testing

Origins and Early History

The nuclear era began in 1945 with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States, which ended World War II. The Soviet Union conducted its first nuclear test in 1949, which intensified Cold War tensions.

Frequency of Nuclear Testing

From 1945 to 1996, over 2,000 nuclear tests were conducted worldwide. India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in 1998, while North Korea carried out six tests between 2006 and 2017. The United States last tested in 1992, China and France in 1996, and the Soviet Union in 1990. Russia, inheriting the Soviet arsenal, has not conducted any tests since then.

Reasons for Halting Tests

Nuclear tests conducted by both Western and Eastern powers caused radiation exposure, land contamination, and long-term health and environmental damage. To curb such hazards and tensions, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted in 1996. Russia ratified the CTBT in 2000 but revoked it in 2023, while the United States has signed the treaty but not ratified it.

Drivers for Resumption

Resumption of nuclear tests allows nations to confirm the effectiveness of existing and new weapons. It can also serve as a strategic signal to rival countries.

Implications of US Nuclear Weapon Testing

Geopolitical Implications

The resumption of US nuclear tests could prompt Russia, China, and other nuclear powers to resume their own tests, potentially triggering a new global arms race. It may encourage Pakistan, North Korea, or Iran to expand or test their nuclear arsenals, creating regional instability. India may also feel pressured to revisit its strategic doctrines, particularly in relation to China and Pakistan. Nuclear tests also allow real-world validation of advanced warheads and delivery systems beyond computer simulations.

Diplomatic Implications

Resuming nuclear testing undermines the CTBT, which represents a long-standing global norm. Such action could erode trust in disarmament efforts and the objectives of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). It also signals a preference for military deterrence over diplomatic engagement.

Environmental Implications

Nuclear tests release radioactive materials, such as Caesium-137 and Strontium-90, into the atmosphere, contaminating air, water, and soil. These radioactive materials increase the risk of cancer, genetic mutations, and birth defects in nearby populations.

Impact on Global Disarmament Goals

Resuming nuclear tests undermines the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) and weakens global commitment to non-proliferation treaties, including the NPT and CTBT.

Ethical Concerns

Nuclear testing disproportionately harms vulnerable communities, violates principles of justice and non-maleficence, and contradicts the spirit of global peace and disarmament efforts.

Key Nuclear Arms Control Treaties

1. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT, 1968)
   The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, promote disarmament, and encourage peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It recognizes five nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China. India is not a member.

2. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT, 1996)
   The CTBT bans all nuclear explosions for testing purposes, though it has not entered into force. India has not signed the treaty.

3. Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW, 2017)
   The TPNW prohibits the use, possession, testing, and transfer of nuclear weapons under international law.

India’s Stand on Nuclear Weapons

Nuclear Testing

India maintains a voluntary moratorium on nuclear testing but does not make it legally binding.

No First Use (NFU) Policy

India adheres to a No First Use policy, reaffirmed in its 2003 Nuclear Doctrine, maintaining credible minimum deterrence.

Commitment to Non-Proliferation

Although India is not a signatory to the NPT, it upholds its non-proliferation objectives.

Peaceful Nuclear Applications

India promotes the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, including power generation, medicine, and industry. It is a signatory to the 1994 Convention on Nuclear Safety.

Balancing Civilian and Strategic Needs

India balances its civilian nuclear program with its strategic arsenal. Its three-stage thorium-based program ensures self-reliance in nuclear energy.

Steps to Preserve Nuclear Peace

1. Reinforce Non-Proliferation Instruments
   Verifiable arms limits, such as the New START agreement, should be renewed, and the CTBT should be enforced to prevent arms races.

2. Strengthen Export Controls
   Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) guidelines should be strictly enforced to prevent the spread of weapons-grade materials.

3. Reduce Accidental or Hasty Use
   Command systems should be secured with robust cybersecurity and fail-safes. De-alerting nuclear forces and extending decision timelines can reduce the risk of hasty use.

4. Revive Arms Control Dialogues
   Strategic talks among the US, Russia, and China should be conducted under UN or G20 frameworks to ensure transparency and restraint.

5. Confidence-Building Measures
   Mutual inventories, reciprocal inspections, and freezes on weapon upgrades can help build trust between nuclear powers.

6. Sustained High-Level Diplomacy
   Nuclear risk reduction must remain a global priority, emphasizing dialogue and cooperation over reliance on deterrence.

Conclusion

The resumption of US nuclear tests risks undermining arms-control norms, triggering a new global arms race, causing environmental and public health hazards, weakening non-proliferation efforts, straining diplomatic relations, and increasing economic costs. Careful international dialogue, robust safeguards, and a renewed focus on disarmament are essential to maintain global nuclear peace.

Scientists from the Environment Department of Himachal Pradesh University (HPU) in Shimla have recently revealed that the Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is the most effective natural air purifier for combating rising pollution levels. Their findings highlight the tree’s superior capacity to trap dust, absorb gases, and cleanse the air compared to other common tree species.

About the Sal Tree

The Sal tree is one of the oldest and strongest tree species found in India. Commonly known as the “Sentinel of the Forests,” it is valued for its longevity and its ability to withstand significant environmental changes.

Sal trees can grow up to 40 meters tall, with a trunk diameter of about 2 meters. The leaves measure 10–25 cm in length and 5–15 cm in width.
The tree’s behavior varies with climate:

• In wetter regions, it remains evergreen.

• In drier regions, it becomes deciduous, shedding most of its leaves from February to April, and producing new foliage in April and May.

In northern India, including Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Jharkhand, the sal tree is also known as sakhua. It is the state tree of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand.

Geographical Distribution

The Sal tree is widely distributed across India and is naturally found in:

• Uttarakhand

• Terai region of Uttar Pradesh

• Jharkhand

• Odisha

• Madhya Pradesh

• Chhattisgarh

• West Bengal

The sal tree is native to the Indian subcontinent, particularly south of the Himalayas, with its range extending from Myanmar in the east to Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
It forms dense forests in several protected areas, including:

• Chitwan National Park

• Bardia National Park

• Shuklaphanta National Park

These regions are known for their extensive stands of towering sal trees.

Cultural Significance

The sal tree holds deep cultural and religious importance in South Asia:

• In Hindu tradition, the sal tree is considered sacred and is associated with Lord Vishnu.

• The name sal derives from the Sanskrit word ??l?, meaning “rampart.”

• In Jain tradition, the 24th Tirthankara, Mahavir, is believed to have attained enlightenment under a sal tree.

• In Bengal, some communities worship Sarna Burhi, a goddess linked to sacred groves of sal trees.

• According to Buddhist tradition, Queen M?y? gave birth to Gautama Buddha while holding a branch of a sal (or Ashoka) tree in Lumbini.

• The Buddha is also said to have passed away while lying between two sal trees.

Climatic Requirements

Temperature

Sal trees can tolerate extreme temperatures—from 40–45°C during summer to as low as 5°C in winter.

Soil

They thrive in plains with light loamy soil and proper drainage. The species requires 1,000–3,000 mm of annual rainfall for healthy growth.

Climate

Sal trees prefer a warm and humid climate and can grow at altitudes of up to 1,500 meters above sea level. They can live up to 100 years and require minimal care or watering, making them especially suitable for hilly terrain.

How Sal Trees Help Control Pollution

1. Dust and Particle Trapping

The Sal tree’s thick, waxy leaves effectively trap dust, carbon particles, and other fine pollutants on their surfaces.

2. Air Purification

It has a high chlorophyll content, which enhances its ability to withstand and absorb harmful gases such as carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide, commonly released by vehicular emissions.

3. Natural Air Filtration

Its dense canopy acts as a natural filter, capturing airborne pollutants and improving overall air quality.

Uses

The sal tree is one of India’s most important sources of hardwood timber. Its wood is hard, coarse-grained, and light in color when freshly cut but darkens to deep brown upon exposure. It is durable and resinous, making it especially useful for:

• Construction

• Door and window frames

• Structures requiring strong, long-lasting timber

However, the wood does not plane or polish easily.

Other significant uses include:

Leaves

The dried leaves are used extensively to make leaf plates and bowls, known as patravali, commonly used in India and Nepal.

Resin

Sal tree resin, also called sal dammar or Indian dammar, has multiple uses:

• As an astringent in Ayurvedic medicine

• As incense in Hindu rituals

• For caulking boats and ships

Seeds and Fruit

The seeds and fruits of the sal tree provide lamp oil and vegetable fat.
The extracted sal seed oil is refined and used as cooking oil.

The Ministry of Education plans to introduce Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Computational Thinking (CT) from Class 3 onwards in the 2026–27 academic year. This initiative is part of the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) 2023 and aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The aim is to prepare students for an AI-driven future and equip them with essential digital skills.

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has formed an expert committee, led by Prof. Karthik Raman, to develop the curriculum. The framework will follow the concept of “The World Around Us” (TWAU) to link AI learning to real-life contexts.

AI & CT Curriculum

About the Curriculum

The AI & CT curriculum aims to make AI education a universal skill, comparable to reading or numeracy. It is designed to shift from rote learning to problem-solving, creativity, and ethical technology use, fostering critical thinking, logical reasoning, and responsible innovation among students.

Early Integration

AI & CT will be introduced from Grade 3, ensuring that children develop an understanding of technology from a foundational stage. The approach emphasizes “AI for Public Good”, highlighting ethical and socially responsible applications of technology.

Institutions Involved

The curriculum will be developed collaboratively by:

• CBSE

• NCERT

• Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS)

• Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS)

• State/Union Territory Education Boards

All will work under the guidance of the Department of School Education and Literacy (DoSE&L).

Implementation and Resources

• Teacher training will be the backbone, delivered via NISHTHA training modules and video-based learning resources.

• The curriculum aims to create tech-literate and ethically aware citizens, supporting India’s vision of becoming an AI-driven knowledge economy.

The World Around Us (TWAU)

TWAU is a multidisciplinary course introduced in NCF-SE 2023 at the preparatory stage. It helps students explore natural, social, and cultural environments through active learning, linking concepts from science, social studies, and environmental education.

Role of AI and Computational Thinking in Education

Global Trends and Workforce Readiness

Countries such as China, UAE, and the UK have integrated AI into school education. Early exposure prepares students for careers in data science, robotics, and AI, which are crucial for the digital economy.

Bridging the AI Awareness Gap

AI literacy enables students to critically understand technologies they already use, such as chatbots and recommendation engines. A survey by Youth Ki Awaaz revealed that 88% of students already use AI for studies; formal education will guide safe and ethical usage.

Personalized and Adaptive Learning

AI tools can adapt content to each student’s pace and learning style, helping to address gaps in underperforming areas. The curriculum promotes project-based learning, critical thinking, and real-world problem-solving.

Gradual and Age-Appropriate Rollout

• Classes 3–5: Focus on AI literacy – basic concepts and ethics

• Classes 6–8: Applied understanding and responsible use

• Classes 9–12: Advanced AI skills, including coding and natural language processing (NLP)

This ensures students gain meta-skills essential for the digital era.

Challenges of AI & CT Integration

1. Digital Divide and Infrastructure Deficiency
   Nearly 50% of Indian schools lack basic digital infrastructure, such as electricity, internet, and computers. Introducing AI without bridging this gap could worsen educational inequalities.

2. Teacher Capacity and Training Gaps
   Most teachers are untrained in AI pedagogy and ethics, and some schools have one teacher for multiple classes, making scaling difficult.

3. Risk of Dis-Education and Dependency
   Students may rely on AI tools to generate answers without understanding concepts, undermining critical reasoning.

4. Curriculum Rigidity and Rapid Tech Change
   AI evolves quickly, and a fixed curriculum risks becoming outdated, leading to misaligned learning outcomes.

5. Privacy, Psychological, and Ethical Risks
   Children interacting with AI tools unsupervised face risks of over-reliance, data misuse, and exposure to biased or unfiltered content.

Balanced Approach for AI & CT Curriculum

1. Phased and Modular Implementation
   Start with AI literacy in Classes 3–5, then applied understanding in Classes 6–8, and finally technical skills in Classes 9–12 (Python, data analysis, AI models).

2. Unplugged Learning for Low-Infrastructure Schools
   Use offline activities and simple games to teach logic, reasoning, and ethical decision-making.

3. Focus on Ethics, Critical Thinking, and Lifelong Learning
   Integrate AI ethics, data privacy, and bias detection. Emphasize adaptability, curiosity, and continuous learning.

4. Teacher Development and Support
   Effective rollout depends on NISHTHA training and strong NCERT–CBSE coordination. Infrastructure readiness, teacher support, and ethical safeguards are critical.

Conclusion

Introducing AI and Computational Thinking early can make students digitally confident and future-ready, but only if implemented gradually, inclusively, and responsibly. Without proper preparation, it may deepen existing inequalities instead of bridging them.

The Turtle Wildlife Sanctuary, also known as the Kachhua Sanctuary, is located in the Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh. It is recognised as India’s first freshwater turtle wildlife sanctuary, established to conserve endangered turtle species and support the ecological health of the Ganga River.

Location and Extent

The sanctuary covers a 7 km stretch of the Ganga River, extending from Ramnagar Fort to the Malviya Railway/Road Bridge in Varanasi. This protected riverine ecosystem plays a crucial role in maintaining aquatic biodiversity.

Purpose of Establishment

The sanctuary was created to ensure the survival of turtles released into the Ganga River under the Ganga Action Plan.
Turtles were introduced to naturally and organically remove half-burnt human remains that are often immersed in the river after Hindu funerary rituals.
This approach allowed the river ecosystem to be cleaned without hurting local cultural sentiments.

Turtle Conservation Measures

• Turtle hatchlings are bred at the Turtle Breeding Centre in Sarnath.

• About 2,000 turtle eggs are collected annually from the Chambal and Yamuna Rivers and brought to the centre.

• Once the hatchlings mature, they are released into the Ganga to enhance the turtle population, especially the declining Indian softshell turtle species.

Biodiversity of the Sanctuary

The sanctuary hosts a rich and diverse aquatic life, including:

• Turtles (various species including softshell turtles)

• The Gangetic Dolphin, an endangered species

• Several fish species such as Rohu, Tengra, and Bhakur

This biodiversity makes the sanctuary an important ecological zone in the Ganga river basin.

World Turtle Day

World Turtle Day is observed annually on 23rd May to highlight the importance of conserving turtles and tortoises. The day was established in 2000 to raise awareness and promote the global conservation of these species.

Key Facts About Turtles

Classification and Anatomy

Turtles belong to the order Testudines. They are reptiles distinguished by a cartilaginous shell that develops from their ribs and forms a protective shield. Unlike other animals with shells, turtles cannot shed or leave their shells, as it is an integral part of their skeleton.

Habitat

Turtles can inhabit both freshwater and marine environments.

Difference Between Turtles and Tortoises

Tortoises differ from other turtles primarily by being strictly terrestrial, while many turtle species are partially aquatic. Although all tortoises are turtles, not all turtles are tortoises. Both turtles and tortoises are generally shy and solitary animals, laying eggs on land by burying them in nests.

Key Features

Turtles are cold-blooded (ectothermic) species, meaning they regulate their body temperature by moving between warmer and cooler environments. Like other ectotherms, such as insects, fish, and amphibians, they have a slow metabolism and can survive extended periods without food or water.

Major Species

• Sea Turtles: Loggerhead Turtle, Green Turtle, Hawksbill Turtle, Leatherback Turtle, Olive Ridley Turtle, and Flatback Turtle.

• Freshwater Turtles: Snapping Turtle, Painted Turtle, Red-eared Slider Turtle, Spiny Softshell Turtle, and Musk Turtle.

State of Turtle Species in India

Species Diversity

India is home to 30 species of freshwater turtles, of which 26 are listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. States such as Assam, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh have a high diversity of turtle species. India also hosts five sea turtle species – Olive Ridley, Green, Loggerhead, Hawksbill, and Leatherback – all protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

Protection Status (IUCN Red List)

• Olive Ridley, Loggerhead, and Leatherback turtles are classified as Vulnerable.

• Green Turtle is classified as Endangered.

• Hawksbill Turtle is classified as Critically Endangered.

Threats

Turtles face severe threats from habitat destruction, climate change, plastic pollution, and illegal wildlife trade for meat, pets, and traditional medicine. The states of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are major trafficking hotspots.

Conservation Efforts in India

Protected Areas and Conservation Centres

Uttar Pradesh leads in turtle conservation by establishing turtle conservation centres in Kukrail (Lucknow), Sarnath (Varanasi), Chambal (Etawah), and a 30 km Turtle Sanctuary in Prayagraj.

Anti-Trafficking Measures

The Forest Department actively works to curb illegal trade, especially in Pilibhit, which is a major trafficking hotspot identified during WCCB’s Operation Kurma.

Research and Future Plans

A Turtle Conservation and Research Centre is being established in the Pilibhit Tiger Reserve along River Mala, funded by CAMPA, to further strengthen conservation and research efforts

Difference between turtles and tortoises :

Feature	Turtle	Tortoise
Habitat	Mostly live in water (oceans, lakes, rivers)	Live on land only
Feet/Flippers	Webbed feet or flippers for swimming	Stumpy, elephant-like feet for walking
Shell Shape	Light, flat, streamlined	Heavy, dome-shaped
Diet	Omnivores (plants + small animals)	Mostly herbivores (plants, grasses, fruits)
Movement	Fast in water, slower on land	Slow on land
Lifespan	Long-lived, but usually less than tortoises	Very long-lived (80–150+ years)
Body Shape	Slimmer, adapted for swimming	Bulkier, adapted for land

Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)

The Olive Ridley Turtle is the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found worldwide. It derives its name from the olive-green coloration of its carapace (shell). These turtles are best known for their unique mass nesting phenomenon, called Arribada, where thousands of females gather on the same beach to lay eggs simultaneously.

Habitat and Distribution

Olive Ridley Turtles are found in the tropical regions of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. They inhabit both pelagic (open ocean) and coastal waters.

Major Nesting Sites in India

• Odisha: Rushikulya, Gahirmatha, and Devi River mouth

• Andaman Islands

Note: Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is recognized as the largest known mass nesting rookery for Olive Ridley turtles in the world.

Reproduction

Olive Ridleys are famous for Arribada, a unique mass nesting phenomenon where thousands of females nest simultaneously.

• From September, they migrate up to 9,000 km from the Pacific to the Indian seas.

• After mating, males retreat, while females nest from December to March.

• Females nest 1–3 times per season, laying around 100 eggs per clutch.

• The sex of hatchlings is determined by the temperature of the nest.

Diet and Behavior

• Olive Ridleys are omnivorous, feeding on jellyfish, snails, crabs, prawns, algae, and small fish.

• They migrate long distances between feeding and nesting sites.

• They are solitary in the open ocean but gather in large numbers during nesting.

Protection Status

• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I

• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

• CITES: Appendix I

Threats

• Bycatch in fishing gear such as trawls, gillnets, and longlines.

• Poaching and egg harvesting for human consumption.

• Habitat loss due to coastal development.

• Pollution including plastic ingestion and marine contamination.

• Climate change leading to rising sea levels and temperature changes, which disrupt nesting sites and food sources.

Conservation Initiatives

• Operation Olivia: Initiative by the Indian Coast Guard since the 1980s to protect nesting turtles and prevent illegal trawling.

• Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs): Mandated in Odisha to prevent accidental deaths in trawl nets.

• Tagging Programs: Olive Ridley turtles are tagged with non-corrosive metal tags to track their movements and safeguard their habitats.

Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta)

Loggerhead Sea Turtles are large oceanic reptiles found worldwide in warm waters. They are the largest hard-shelled turtles in the world and the second largest overall, after the leatherback sea turtle, which has a soft shell.Loggerhead turtles can sense the Earth’s magnetic field and use it for long?distance navigation, much like a natural GPS

• Adult Size: 90–95 cm long; up to 135 kg

• Largest Recorded: 213 cm; 545 kg

• Conservation Status: Vulnerable (IUCN)

Physical Characteristics

• Shell: Reddish-brown carapace (upper shell) divided into scutes; yellowish plastron (underside)

• Head: Narrow with a strong, beak-like jaw for crushing prey

• Sex Differences: Males have longer tails and claws; carapace wider but less domed

• Special Adaptations:

  • Salt glands near the eyes excrete excess salt (appears as “tears”)

  • Magnetic navigation allows migration and return to natal nesting beaches

Habitat and Distribution

• Oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Mediterranean

• Preferred Habitats: Coastal areas, estuaries, and open ocean

• Nesting Beaches: Females return to the same beach where they hatched to lay eggs

Behavior

• Swimming: Solitary; migrate seasonally between feeding and breeding grounds

• Diving: Can hold breath for 4–20 minutes (up to 4 hours in cold water); dive to 1,000+ feet

• Feeding Activity: Diurnal; hunt bottom-dwelling invertebrates

• Territoriality: Females may fight over feeding grounds using aggressive displays and biting

Reproduction

• Maturity: 17–33 years old

• Nesting:

  • Females lay 4–5 clutches per season

  • Around 112 eggs per clutch, buried above the high-tide line

• Hatchlings: Emerge after ~80 days; guided to the ocean by moonlight reflection

• Survival Rate: High predation from crabs, birds, and foxes; up to 95% mortality in some regions

Diet

• Omnivorous: Feed on clams, mussels, crabs, shrimp, jellyfish

• Unique Adaptation: Esophagus filters out foreign objects like fish hooks

Interesting Facts

• Cannot retract heads into shells

• Most common sea turtle in the Mediterranean

• Hatchlings use seaweed rafts (e.g., Sargassum) as shelter in the open ocean

Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)

Other Names
The leatherback sea turtle is sometimes called the lute turtle, leathery turtle, or simply the luth.

Taxonomy
It is the only living species in the genus Dermochelys and the family Dermochelyidae.

Physical Characteristics
The leatherback is the largest of all living turtles and the fourth-heaviest modern reptile, after three species of crocodilians. It can be easily distinguished from other sea turtles because it lacks a bony shell. Instead, its carapace is covered with skin and oily flesh, giving it a distinctive leathery appearance.

Distribution and Habitat
Leatherbacks are the largest and most wide-ranging of the seven species of sea turtles. They are found in all oceans except the Arctic and Antarctic. In the Indian Ocean, they nest only in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Conservation Status
The leatherback sea turtle is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. In India, it is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which provides the highest level of legal protection.

Interesting Fact
Leatherbacks are unique among sea turtles because they lack a hard shell, which is the origin of their name.

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas)

Physical Features
Green sea turtles can grow up to 120 cm in length and weigh between 136–159 kg. Their carapace, or upper shell, is smooth and can vary in color, including black, grey, green, brown, and yellow, while their plastron (bottom shell) is typically yellowish-white. They have a comparatively small head and a modified “beak” instead of teeth, which is well-suited to their herbivorous diet. Green sea turtles have good underwater vision but are nearsighted out of water. Their eardrums are covered by skin, and they hear best at low frequencies.

Diet
Green sea turtles are primarily herbivorous, feeding mostly on seagrasses and algae. Their diet gives their fat a greenish hue, though it does not affect the color of their shell. This unique diet differentiates them from other sea turtle species.

Lifespan
Green sea turtles are estimated to live for 60–70 years.

Distribution and Migration
They are found in tropical and subtropical waters around the world and nest along the coastlines of over 80 countries. The largest nesting populations are found in Costa Rica and Australia. Green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding grounds and nesting sites, with some migrations recorded at over 2,600 km.

Conservation Status
The green sea turtle is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to threats such as habitat loss, poaching, and the impacts of climate change.

Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)

Physical Features
The Hawksbill turtle is a striking marine reptile, easily recognized by its pointed beak, which resembles that of a hawk. It has a flattened body with flipper-like limbs adapted for swimming. Its carapace, or upper shell, displays intricate patterns of amber, orange, red, yellow, black, and brown, making it highly valued in the illegal tortoiseshell trade.

Distribution and Habitat
Hawksbill turtles are primarily found in tropical and subtropical waters worldwide. They inhabit coral reefs, rocky areas, estuaries, and lagoons. These turtles are migratory, traveling long distances between feeding and nesting grounds.

Diet and Ecological Role
Hawksbills have a specialized diet that consists mainly of sponges. They use their pointed beak to extract sponges from crevices in coral reefs. This feeding behavior helps control sponge populations, preventing them from smothering corals and thereby maintaining reef health.

Reproduction
Female Hawksbill turtles reach sexual maturity at around 20–30 years of age. They nest on sandy beaches, laying clutches of eggs every 2–4 years. Hatchlings face numerous threats on their journey to the sea, and only a small fraction survive to adulthood.

Conservation Status
The Hawksbill turtle is classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List, with its survival threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and the illegal trade of its shell.

Hawksbill Turtle Action Plan

Background
At COP14, concerns were raised regarding the declining population of the Hawksbill turtle. Key threats include exploitation and trade, as highlighted in recent scientific assessments in the Indian Ocean-Southeast Asia Region and the Western Pacific Ocean Region.

Adoption of the Action Plan
In response, COP14 adopted the Single Species Action Plan (SSAP) for the Hawksbill turtle in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific Ocean Region. The plan directs participating parties to undertake immediate conservation actions and implement its provisions effectively.

Implementation and Directions
Parties are required to nominate national government representatives and one national expert to ensure the effective execution of the action plan. Priority actions outlined in the SSAP should be addressed as soon as possible, while medium-priority actions are to be integrated into national planning. Implementation of the plan will depend on the availability of resources

Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii)

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles are known for their remarkable synchronous mass nesting events, called arribadas, a Spanish word meaning “arrivals.” During an arribada, tens of thousands of female turtles come ashore to nest within the same 3–7 day period, usually once a month.
Along with olive ridleys, and to a lesser extent flatbacks, Kemp’s ridleys are among the only sea turtle species that commonly nest during the daytime.

Conservation Efforts

An extraordinary bi-national conservation effort between Mexico and the United States has helped protect Kemp’s ridleys from extinction. This includes translocating eggs from nesting beaches in Mexico to protected beaches in Texas and head-starting programs, in which hatchlings are raised in captivity to larger sizes before release. These measures help reduce predation and increase survival rates.

Physical Characteristics

Adults: Adult Kemp’s ridley turtles measure about 60–70 cm in length and can weigh up to 45 kg.
Hatchlings: Newly hatched turtles are approximately 25 mm long and weigh 15–20 g.

Diet

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles feed primarily on benthic invertebrates, including crabs, crustaceans, mollusks, and occasionally jellyfish. This diet remains consistent across all life stages.

Reproduction

Kemp’s ridleys reach sexual maturity at around 15 years of age. After their first nesting event, females return to nest every 1–3 years.
During a nesting season, each female lays 1–3 clutches, with each clutch containing 90–130 eggs. These ping-pong-ball–sized eggs weigh about 30 g each and incubate for approximately 50 days before hatching.

Threats

Kemp’s ridley turtles face numerous human-related threats, made worse by the fact that nearly all nesting sites are limited to the Gulf of Mexico, making the species extremely vulnerable.

Major threats include:

• Fisheries Interactions: Bycatch in fishing nets and lines is one of their greatest threats. Discarded fishing gear (“ghost gear”) continues to entangle turtles in the ocean.

• Pollution and Pathogens: Plastic pollution causes entanglement, impaired movement, choking, internal damage, and blockages when ingested.

• Coastal Development: Beach development reduces available nesting habitat, and artificial lighting disorients both nesting females and hatchlings.

• Climate Change: Changes in climate affect food sources, migration routes, nest temperatures, and hatchling sex ratios. Hotter sands lead to more female hatchlings, disrupting the population balance.

• Direct Take: In some regions, turtle eggs are harvested, and adults are hunted for their meat.

Distribution

Kemp’s ridley turtles have the most restricted range of all sea turtle species.
They only nest in:

• Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico (primary site)

• Texas, USA

Their non-nesting range includes the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea.